Basics

ABNORMAL SITUATIONS are all unexpected events that cannot be handled by standard procedures but do not directly jeopardise the safety of the aircraft, occupants or persons on the ground.

EMERGENCIES are events that directly endanger the safety of the aircraft, occupants or persons on the ground.

Abnormal situations and emergencies caused by technical defects are rare but do occur. However, the causes of abnormal situations and emergencies are not necessarily limited to technical defects.

For many abnormal situations and emergencies there are defined procedures / EMERGENCY PROCEDURES and checklists / EMERGENCY CHECKLISTS, which can be found in the aircraft manual / AFM.

There are situations where it is not immediately clear which EMERGENCY PROCEDURE is to be applied. Moreover, it is impossible to have an EMERGENCY PROCEDURE available for all situations and their combinations. It is therefore essential to be able to fall back on a known basic procedure that is always applicable and within which the EMERGENCY PROCEDURES according to the AFM are applied in the correct priority. The aim of this basic procedure is to bring the abnormal situation or emergency that has occurred under control systematically, deliberately and quickly using a known procedure.

In any abnormal situation or emergency, a structured procedure is of central importance. A known basic procedure, which is always applied in the same way in the most diverse situations, should help to create security in a possibly unclear and potentially threatening situation.

Firstly, this maximises the chance of taking the right steps in the right order despite possible stress (systematic) in order to avert the threat in the best possible way and prevent hasty decisions or actions. Secondly, this can also create a certainty of action in unknown situations, which reduces psychological stress, possible feelings of powerlessness and the resulting risk of a blockade of thought or action, and thus increases the chance of being able to master abnormal situations and emergencies with confidence and survive unscathed.

For a structured procedure in abnormal situations and emergencies, different variants of basic procedures have been developed by aircraft manufacturers and operators. They are all based on similar considerations. In the following, we will take a closer look at one of these basic procedures:

For a structured procedure in abnormal situations and emergencies, different variants of basic procedures have been developed by aircraft manufacturers and operators. They are all based on similar considerations. In the following, we will take a closer look at one of these basic procedures:

For a structured procedure in abnormal situations and emergencies, different variants of basic procedures have been developed by aircraft manufacturers and operators. They are all based on similar considerations. In the following, we will take a closer look at one of these basic procedures:

For a structured procedure in abnormal situations and emergencies, different variants of basic procedures have been developed by aircraft manufacturers and operators. They are all based on similar considerations. In the following, we will take a closer look at one of these basic procedures:

For a structured procedure in abnormal situations and emergencies, different variants of basic procedures have been developed by aircraft manufacturers and operators. They are all based on similar considerations. In the following, we will take a closer look at one of these basic procedures:

For a structured procedure in abnormal situations and emergencies, different variants of basic procedures have been developed by aircraft manufacturers and operators. They are all based on similar considerations. In the following, we will take a closer look at one of these basic procedures:

It is essential that this basic procedure is applied sequentially. Until the FLY, NAVIGATE and COMMUNICATE are done, EVALUATE should not be started. It can help to call out the individual points (FLY-NAVIGATE-etc.) aloud. On the one hand, this helps the pilot himself to consciously work his way through the procedure from point to point. On the other hand, it also helps the flight instructor, for example, to realise that the situation is being recognised and worked on.

It is also important that you apply the basic procedure systematically and without rushing, but nevertheless fluently. There is a danger that you get stuck on individual points for too long. For example, if you are in stabilised cruising flight and a problem occurs, then the FLY and NAVIGATE is done relatively quickly. But if you are about to fly over a mountain pass in bad weather, then you will be busy with the FLY and especially the NAVIGATE for longer than in the first case.

With many, usually rather complex aircraft, it is necessary to know certain time-critical immediate actions by heart. These are prescribed by the aircraft manufacturer or the aircraft operator. Even with less complex aircraft, it makes sense to know certain time-critical emergency measures by heart. Since these immediate measures are normally structured according to the "Fly-Nav-Com" priority principle, they can be taken first when a problem occurs. Afterwards, it can make sense to work through the basic procedure explained here from the beginning with the idea behind it to work through the problem in a structured way with a known procedure and not to forget anything.

A stabilised and safe flight attitude is essential for survival and has top priority. Pitch, bank and yaw are part of the attitude. The primary reference is the natural horizon if available, the secondary reference is the artificial horizon. The flight vector should also not be neglected and it must be clear where it is pointing.

Tip: With most aircraft you can assume that with pitch 0° and idle (e.g. in the event of an engine failure) the aircraft will fly safely. This means that you do not fall below/exceed any limits (for example: no risk of stall).

A stabilised flight attitude also includes a choice of engine power corresponding to the flight attitude as well as clarity about the position of the drag and lift aids, which must be adjusted depending on the situation and the malfunction. A speed results from the flight attitude, engine power and choice of drag/lift aids. This should also be included in the scanning and consciously selected, adjusted if necessary and then stabilised. Now the aircraft should be trimmed.

In the event of engine problems, it may be necessary to adjust the flight attitude to the remaining engine power, because an engine problem is often accompanied by a loss of thrust, which limits the aircraft's flight performance.

In aircraft with autopilot, it should be used consciously (switch on or off; adjust automation according to the situation).

In an extraordinary situation it is essential to know where the aircraft is, where the aircraft should be and where you want to steer the aircraft.

In this context, you need to know where the terrain (hills, mountains) is, where the nearest obstacles are, where any airspace requiring permission is located and where bad weather (e.g. clouds) is to be expected.

In summary, it can be said that with NAVIGATE you consciously steer the aircraft in a direction in which you no longer have to invest any capacity regarding terrain, weather, obstacles or airspace in the next few minutes and you can dedicate yourself without restriction to problem solving (EVALUATE / EXECUTE / DECISION MAKING).

Communication shall include brief and concise information, if relevant and necessary, to:

• the ATC
• other crew members (e.g. the flight instructor)
• any passengers present

If you are not currently on an active ATC frequency and do not have time to search out the appropriate frequency, the international emergency frequency 121.500 can be called at any time. All ATC stations listen on this frequency, as well as other aircraft such as airliners and military aircraft. Therefore, in mountainous terrain without radio coverage, it can be helpful to even send a "blind" radio message on 121.500. An aircraft that hears the radio message can relay your information to ATC.

Communication with crew members and passengers should only take place when work is to be shared within the aircraft or instructions are to be given that must be implemented immediately.

Depending on the situation, it may also be the case that COMMUNICATE does not communicate with anyone because there is nothing urgent to communicate or the situation is not yet clear enough.

In emergency situations / EMERGENCIES the radio call shall be made with

"MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY"

in abnormal situations / ABNORMAL SITUATIONS start with

"PAN PAN, PAN PAN, PAN PAN".

In general, if in doubt, do not hesitate to declare an EMERGENCY or an ABNORMAL SITUATION.

The transponder can also be used for communication. The transponder codes established are:

• EMERGENCY/ EMERGENCY: 7700
• COMMUNICATION FAILURE: 7600
• HIJACKING / Hijacking: 7500

Now you have the time and capacity to deal with the real problem. Evaluating the problem is about finding out what the problem is and determining the appropriate procedure for it. The problem is verified by systematically checking and comparing different sources of information. Sources of information can be: Warning lights, instruments, switch positions, circuit breakers / CB, ATC, crew members, passengers or the pilot's own sensory organs such as eyes, noses and ears.

Once the problem has been detected, a brief analysis is made at this point to determine whether the error is time critical or not. If it is time critical, it is appropriate at this point to steer the aircraft towards a suitable landing field or airfield.

Now the problem verified under EVALUATE must be tackled in a targeted manner. For many technical problems, the checklist for emergency procedures / EMERGENCY CHECKLIST is available.

Now an operational decision has to be made.

• How should the flight proceed?
• Is an emergency landing or a precautionary landing necessary?
• Can the flight continue to the next suitable airfield or even to the destination?
• Does the flight have to be aborted and returned to the departure aerodrome?

The corresponding options with their advantages and disadvantages must be well weighed up against each other. Among other things, the remaining flight time, the available fuel, the technical condition of the aircraft, the weather and the runway length at the destination aerodrome must be taken into account. ATC can provide good support, for example, regarding weather, nearest airfields or their infrastructure, if asked. Later on, a decision should only be revised if new information is available and considerable advantages arise from the revised decision.

In abnormal and emergency situations, the procedures published in the Airplane Flight Manual / AFM should be followed whenever possible. An extract from the AFM in the form of a checklist with all aircraft-specific abnormal situations and emergency procedures is stored in each aircraft. It is important to ensure that this checklist is readily available to the pilot before each flight.

However, it is equally important that every pilot knows the contents of this checklist. On the one hand, you must know the contents list in order to know whether you have a procedure available to you in EXECUTE, which is defined in the EMERGENCY CHECKLIST. On the other hand, you must also know the contents of the individual checklists. In the event of an emergency, it is only possible to work through the checklists quickly if you have already studied the contents of the checklist and all the additional explanations.

For all these reasons, it is worthwhile to review the procedures in the AFM / EMERGENCY CHECKLIST in detail together with the flight instructor during training and to refresh them at regular intervals after training.

Sound technical knowledge of the aircraft makes it easier to gain an overview during EVALUATE and to recognise or limit sources of error in a more targeted manner.

With the following worksheet you now have the opportunity to study the contents of the AFM of your aircraft in more detail.